Abstract

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) provides a crucial benchmark for evaluating educational systems worldwide, yet numerous countries consistently underperform, necessitating an in-depth examination of the underlying factors. To address the gap, this systematic review of the literature was conducted. Six (6) scientific databases were employed to execute systematic reviews: Scopus, Frontiers, Eric, Springer, Academia, and Semantic Scholar. The researcher only considers research from 2014–2024 in the publication dates. This systematic literature review aims to unveil the determinants of underperformance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Through thematic analysis of existing research, three major themes emerged as critical factors: socio-economic status, teacher quality and training, and educational system and policies. Socioeconomic status significantly affects student performance, as lower socio-economic backgrounds are associated with limited access to educational resources, financial stress, and inadequate parental support. The educational system and policies also play a crucial role, with outdated curricula, inequitable resource distribution, and ineffective policy implementation creating environments that hinder student learning. Teacher quality and training are essential, as effective teaching depends on deep subject knowledge, strong pedagogical skills, and ongoing professional development. Insufficiently trained or unsupported teachers struggle to meet diverse student needs, leading to poorer outcomes. This review underscores the need for holistic interventions addressing these determinants to improve PISA performance and ensure equitable education for all students.

1. Introduction

In the ever-evolving landscape of global education assessments, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) stands as a critical benchmark for evaluating the effectiveness of educational systems worldwide. PISA assesses students' knowledge and skills and sheds light on educators' preparedness and instructional strategies ¹. It even mentioned that many countries implement serious revisions in their education systems because of the pressure being held on the policymakers due to the results of PISA ².

The two recent consecutive results of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) show an alarming situation about Filipino students’ performance in these mathematical capabilities. The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development is intended to assess educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school students’ scholastic performance in mathematics, science, and reading. In PISA 2022, results revealed that Filipino students’ scores in mathematics ranked 77th out of 81 participating countries ³, with almost no improvement in performance from 76th out of 77 participating countries in PISA 2018 ¹. Additional data indicates that student achievement on international tests like TIMSS and PISA is becoming more sensitive to family background ⁴. This literature review highlights the persistent underperformance of Filipino students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), with minimal improvement between 2018 and 2022, where they ranked near the bottom globally in mathematics. This consistent underperformance suggests deep-rooted issues within the educational system that have not been effectively addressed despite previous PISA results.

An essential instrument for assessing and enhancing educational systems around the globe is the PISA evaluation. Low PISA performance has serious ethical ramifications that call for an all-encompassing strategy to address both pressing educational needs and more general institutional problems. Policymakers and educators can work toward establishing a more fair and productive learning environment for all kids by utilizing PISA insights and putting evidence-based interventions into practice ⁵.

Thus, this study intends to conduct a systematic review of unveiling the determinants of underperformance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The following research question guides this systematic review: What are the determinants of underperformance among countries in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)?

2. Method

A systematic review is a type of literature review that, following an exhaustive search for pertinent publications on the topic, provides an answer to a question based on the research that is already accessible. It can be repeated by other researchers and adheres to a clear, defined technique. The method utilized in this systematic review was based on the method of performing systematic reviews in the social sciences ⁶.

This systematic review aims to identify and synthesize research on the determinants of underperformance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The review focuses on socio-economic, educational, and policy-related factors influencing low-performing countries, providing insights and recommendations for policymakers and educators.

To lessen author bias, it varies from a "traditional" literature review in that it gathers all studies that satisfy predetermined eligibility criteria and discusses the results of all the identified studies, as opposed to presenting author-selected studies that were the result of a literature search. It has (6) scientific databases were employed to execute the systematic review: Scopus, Frontiers, Eric, Springer, Academia, and Semantic Scholar. The researcher used several combinations of search terms to find the relevant articles for this systematic review, i.e. "determinants of underperformance", PISA scores, and "math" or "mathematics". The initial search resulted in more than 20,000 articles. The researcher only considers research from 2014-2024 in the publication dates.

3. Findings and Discussion

The review was conducted to unveil the determinants of underperformance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Thematic analysis revealed three (3) major themes including 1) socio-economic as a main factor, (2) educational system and policies, and (3) teacher quality and training.

Most of the studies identified socio-economic as a main factor (11 studies out of 15 studies involved), around 73% of the analyzed literature highlight the significance of socio-economic as a main factor of low performance in PISA. In support of this result, numerous studies highlight that countries with high-income inequality tend to have lower PISA scores.

Socio-economic disparities can limit access to quality education and resources ^{7, 8}. Socioeconomic status (SES) includes various elements such as family income, parental education, and access to resources. Students from lower socio-economic backgrounds often face numerous challenges that can impede their academic performance ⁹. Research also indicates that students whose parents have higher educational attainment and occupational status generally perform better in PISA assessments, especially in Mathematics ^{9, 10, 11, 12}.

Students from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds may have poor access to educational resources such as books, computers, and private tutoring. This lack of access can limit their ability to complete homework, conduct research, and engage in additional learning outside of school ^{8, 9}. Students from lower socio-economic backgrounds might face more stress related to financial instability, which can impact their mental health and ability to focus on their studies. Also, parents with lower levels of education might be less able to assist their children with schoolwork or provide educational guidance. Additionally, these parents might place less emphasis on the importance of education due to their own experiences ^{9, 13}.

In addition, schools in lower socioeconomic areas often receive minimal funding, leading to fewer educational materials, less extracurricular programming, and lower-quality facilities. This can create an environment that is less conducive to learning ^{4, 14, 15}.

This study concludes that education policy must incorporate individual differences in intelligence, beyond socioeconomic variables, as an important predictor variable in student performance studies ⁸. Also, some studies unveiled the importance of schools in bridging achievement gaps based on socioeconomic status (SES). They found out that schools have limited ability to bridge SES gaps that exist within schools ^{14, 15, 16}, although personal characteristics continue to be those that best explain academic performance, a series of contextual variables, especially related to families, appear to influence academic performance differently and may even hide or cancel out certain personal characteristics ^{13, 14}.

Another discovered factor affecting the performance in PISA is the educational system itself. There were 9 studies out of 15 studies involved and around 60% of the analyzed literature highlights the significance of the education system and policies as a factor of low performance in PISA.

The structure and policies of the educational system play a pivotal role in shaping the quality of education ^{15, 16}. These include curriculum design, assessment methods, resource allocation, and overall guidance of the education sector. A well-designed curriculum that is both rigorous and relevant is essential for high student achievement ^{4, 15, 17}. Systems with outdated, overly rigid, or poorly structured curricula can fail to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed to perform well on assessments like PISA. The process by which students are assessed can influence their learning and performance ^{4, 17}.

However, systems that rely heavily on rote memorization and standardized tests might not foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are crucial for PISA success ^{16, 18}. Effective education policies need to be well-implemented and regularly evaluated. Some studies identified factors that were consistently negatively associated with math achievement such as the shortage of teachers or the student-teacher ratio and general staff ⁹. This policy which were not executed properly or that do not address the specific needs of the student population can lead to disparities in educational quality and outcomes. Systems that fail to provide adequate support to all schools, particularly those in disadvantaged areas, contribute to gaps in education quality and student performance ^{10, 12, 19}.

One of the considered results of the poor educational system and policies was the problem with the teacher-student ratio ⁹. Lower teacher-student ratios are critically important for improving PISA performance due to their impact on personalized instruction, classroom management, and overall academic outcomes ¹⁵. Research consistently shows that smaller class sizes allow teachers to provide more individualized attention, fostering better understanding and engagement among students ¹². There were 9 studies highlighting the significance of teacher quality and training as a factor of low performance in PISA.

In connection with this, The Department of Education (DepEd) in the Philippines launched the Professional Development Program on Assessment and Emerging Literacy with a focus on PISA (Assessment PD) in line with its commitment to improving the quality of basic education in the Philippines ²⁰. The Assessment PD aims to improve teachers’ assessment strategies, methods, and content knowledge in Math, Science, and Reading, and to help them align their classroom practices with emerging literacy measured by international assessments.

Teachers need to remain up-to-date with the changing requirements of the modern workplace. A lifelong learning approach to teacher development is essential considering that teaching is demanding and that expectations of staff may evolve with time ¹. Another study ²¹ emphasized the importance of teacher quality and professional development in enhancing student outcomes in PISA. The study found that countries with well-developed systems of teacher training and ongoing professional development tend to perform better in PISA assessments. This suggests a strong correlation between effective teacher preparation and student success on international assessments like PISA.

The study concluded that professional development programs focusing on content knowledge, pedagogical skills, and instructional strategies have a significant positive impact on student achievement. Such programs are essential for preparing teachers to effectively teach the content areas assessed in tests like PISA, including mathematics.

4. Conclusion

This study revealed that the socioeconomic status of the learners had a significant impact on the underperformance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) among participating countries. This disparity can cause limited access to quality education and resources that are beneficial in preparing students for international assessments like PISA ⁸. Also, continuous professional development for teachers was linked to higher student performance. Countries that invest in regular training and support for teachers see better PISA results. Lower teacher-student ratios allow for more personalized attention, which can lead to better educational outcomes. Effective allocation of educational resources, including qualified teachers and learning materials, is critical. Countries underperforming in PISA often have poorly resourced schools, affecting the quality of education provided.

Moreover, the relevance and rigor of curricula are pivotal. Studies show that countries with outdated or non-engaging curricula tend to perform worse and some researches indicates that teacher training and professional development are also critical factors in preparing both educators and students for assessments like PISA as shown by the result, 9 out of 15 researches.

References