The quality of ground and surface water sources are contaminated by heavy metal discharged from industries, transport, municipal wastes, and hazardous waste sites as well as from fertilizers applied for agricultural intensification purposes and accidental oil spillages from tankers can result in a steady rise in contamination of both ground and surface water. Objective: To determine the level of heavy metal contamination in ground and surface water sources in Jimma town, Southwest Ethiopia. Method: The study was conducted in Jimma town in 2019 by applying a cross-sectional study design. A total of 20 samples were collected from Ground and surface water samples and stored in a clean polythene bottle that had been prewashed with 10% nitric acid and thoroughly rinsed with deionized water using standard methods of American Public Health Association (APHA), 2012. Heavy metal in water samples was analyzed by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. SPSS version 23 and excel software were employed for statistical analysis. A comparison of the results with the accepted international standard was carried out. Results: results for physicochemical parameters were in the range of: pH (5.9-8.71), Electrical Conductivity (83-1212 𝜇S/cm), Turbidity (0.67-5.4 NTU), and water temperature (21.9-29.8°C) and some selected heavy metals in water samples analyzed were found in the range of Pb (0.0174-0.183 mg/L), Cd (0.0029-0.031 mg/L), Cu (0.0495-0.581 mg/L), Fe (0.03-0.95 mg/L), Mn (0.00-0.55 mg/L), and Zn (0.0345-3.45 mg/L) for water sample. Conclusion: the concentrations of Pb and Cd in surface and groundwater sources were above the maximum limits recommended by WHO, USEPA, and EU. Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in ground and surface water were below the limits recommended by WHO, USEPA, and EU.
Water is the most abundant substance on the earth’s surface that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life. Next to the air, we breathe, water is the second most important substance for humankind 1. The major causes of this contamination could be soil erosion, domestic waste from urban and rural areas, agricultural activities, industrial wastes, inadequate treatment, and the over-use of limited water resources.
Heavy metals are usually present in industrial, municipal, and urban runoff, which can be harmful to humans and biotic life. Increased urbanization and industrialization are to be blamed for an increased level of trace metal, especially heavy metal, in-ground, and surface water sources 2.
Heavy metals in water refer to the heavy, dense, metallic elements that occur in trace levels, but are very toxic and tend to accumulate, hence are commonly referred to as trace metals. The major anthropogenic sources of heavy metals are industrial wastes from mining sites, manufacturing and metal finishing plants, and domestic wastewater and runoff from roads.
The known fatal effects of heavy metal toxicity in drinking water include damaged the central nervous system. They also cause irregularity in blood composition; badly affect vital organs such as kidneys and liver 3. Long-term exposure to these heavy metals results in physical, muscular, neurological degenerative processes. In addition, consumption of heavy metals causes Alzheimer’s disease (brain disorder), Parkinson’s disease (degenerative disease of the brain), muscular dystrophy (progressive skeletal muscle weakness), multiple sclerosis (a nervous system disease that affects the brain and spinal cord). For example, lead is one of the most common heavy metals in drinking water; it occurred more than its permissible limit shows general metabolic poison and enzyme inhibitor 4.
To the best of our knowledge, limited numbers of studies are available on heavy metal contamination in ground and surface water sources in the study area. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the concentration of heavy metal contamination in ground and surface water sources.
Description of the study area: The study was conducted in Jimma town, located in Jimma Zone of Oromia region 355 km from Addis Ababa, southwest Ethiopia lying between the latitude of 7°41’- 8°56’N and longitude of 36°50’-38°38' E. The estimated annual rainfall is nearly 1749.3 mm.
Study period: The study was conducted from March 11 to 24, 2019.
Study design and variables: A cross-sectional study design was used to assess the level of heavy metal contamination of ground and surface water sources.
Sampling site selection: A total of 20 sampling sites were selected. The samples were collected from Jimma town and its surrounding ground and surface water sources to determine the level of contamination of heavy metals in Jimma town.
Sample collection, preparation, and transportation: Water quality parameters from all sites were measured in situ using a portable multimeter. Water samples for heavy metal analysis were collected using a one-liter polythene bottle. Before collection, the bottles were rinsed with tap water and thereafter soaked in 10% HNO3 for 24 h and finally rinsed with deionized water.
During sampling, sample bottles were first rinsed with the sampled water three times and then filled to the brim to the sample container. The bottles were sealed tightly to avoid headspace that causes deterioration of the original content of samples because of oxidation. The time, date, location of the sample, and other relevant information of the sampling sites information were recorded properly for easy identification 5.
After collection, the samples were transported in a cold box below 4°C, and transported to Amhara design and supervision works enterprise laboratory and treated for heavy metals analysis. All the samples have analyzed for heavy metals such as Fe, Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Mn using FAAS 6.
In this study, water sample digestion method for heavy metal analysis used the following aqueous sample digestion procedures, 7. About 100mL of a well-mixed and acid preserved water sample from each sample were taken in separate 250mL Griffin flasks and mixed with a mixture of 2.0mL of HNO3 (69-72%), and 1.0 mL of HCl (37%) solution. The concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Mn) in the water samples were determined using FAAS.
Quality control strategy: Deionized water was used for dilution and rinsing. All containers were thoroughly washed and rinsed with 10% HNO3 before use in the analysis. For each of the metal analyses, stock solutions of analytical grade chemicals were used for the preparation of primary and secondary standards. For the determination of method detection limits of metals, several blank samples containing deionized water were processed through the same steps as those of the samples and metal determinations were similarly made 8.
Data processing and analysis: Determination of heavy metals was conducted in Amhara design supervision works enterprise laboratory. After determining the concentration of heavy metals found in ground and surface water data generated in this study was analyzed using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and SPSS (version 23).
The pH of water samples collected from surface water sources ranged from 7.52 to 8.11 with a mean of 7.82 with the highest and lowest values at WTI and UT1 respectively in the mean of 7.82. The EC of water samples ranged from 160.2 to 167.9 μS/cm with a mean of 165.4 μS/cm 1 with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTR1 respectively.
The water temperature (°C) of the samples ranged from 22.9°C to 25.2°C with a mean of 24°C with the highest and lowest values at WTI and GMR2respectively. The turbidity of surface water sources samples ranged from 2.39 NTU to 5.4 NTU with a mean of 3.1 NTU with the highest and lowest values at WTI and UT1 respectively.
The pH of water samples collected from groundwater sources ranged from 5.16 to 8.71 with a mean of 6.68 with the highest and lowest values at JIPDW3 and DFHP1 respectively. The EC of water samples ranged from 83.3 to 1212μS/cm with a mean of 259.8 μS/cm with the highest and lowest values at DWM1 and BTS1 respectively.
The water temperature (°C) of the samples ranged from 21.9°C to 29.8°C with a mean of 24.8°C with the highest and lowest values at DWM1and BAS5 respectively. The turbidity of surface water sources samples ranged from 0.67NTU to 4.9NTU with a mean of 2.01 NTU with the highest and lowest values at BTS1 and DWM1 respectively.
Samples collected from surface water sources the concentration of Cu was ranged from 0.0528 to 0.0911 mg/L with a mean of 0.067 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTO respectively. The concentration of Zn ranged from 0.0358 to 0.1464 mg/L with a mean of 0.095 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTR1respectively, and the concentration of Pb those samples collected from surface water sources ranged from 0.0174 to 0.183mg/L with a mean of 0.083 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTO respectively were found.
The amount of cadmium (Cd) in the study area is given in Figure 2. The minimum concentrations of Cd were found to be 0.0029mg/L while the maximum is 0.0219 mg/L with a mean of 0.010 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at UT1 and WTR1 respectively.
The amount of iron (Fe) in the study area samples collected from sources of surface water the minimum concentrations of Fe were found to be 0.05 mg/L while the maximum is 0.95mg/L with a mean of 0.258 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTO respectively.
Manganese (Mn) concentration was found to range from 0.01 mg/l to 0.55mg/L as shown in (Figure 2) with a mean of 0.154 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and GMR2 respectively were found.
Samples collected from groundwater sources the concentration of Cu was ranged from 0.0495 to 0.581mg/L with a mean of 0.115 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP and BAS5 respectively.
The concentration of Zn samples collected from groundwater ranged from 0.0345 to 3.45 mg/L with a mean of 0.368 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP1 and TS6 respectively, and the concentration Pb ranged from 0.0365 to 0.179mg/L with a mean of 0.120 mg/L with the maximum and minimum values at the site of DFHP and JIPDW3 respectively.
In the groundwater sample, the concentration of Cd the sample collected from groundwater sources ranged from 0.0042 to 0.031mg/L with a mean of 0.016 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at BATS1 and BAS5 respectively. The average concentration of Fe in all the groundwater sources samples ranged between 0.03– 0.95mg/L with a mean of 0.223 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP and KDW2 respectively and the concentration of Mn ranged 0.00 to 0.38mg/L with a mean of 0.114 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at MSW3 and (BAS3, WBTS1, and TS6) respectively were found.
pH: The result indicates that the pH values of all the drinking water samples collected from in the surface water sources were found to be in the range between 7.52 and 8.11 with the mean of 7.82 (Table 1), where the lowest and highest value at (Ureal tap 1(UT1)) and water treatment in the intake part (WTI), respectively (Table 1). The surface waters exhibited an alkaline pH range of 7.52.-8.11 but the values are well within the safe limit of drinking purpose with a mean of 7.82. Higher levels of pH and alkalinity tend to reduce the toxicity of metals in water (Table 1 and Figure 2 & Figure 3). The present study pH value lower than the result obtained from Axum university samples collected from the river was in the mean of 6.53 9.
The samples collected from groundwater sources, the measured pH of water samples ranged from 5.16 to 8.71 in the samples collected from Dill fire hand pump (DFHP) and Jimma industrial park deep well (JIPDW) respectively with a mean of 6.68.
The toxicity of heavy metals also gets enhanced at particular pH. The samples collected from groundwater sources were the entire pH values lie within the guideline limit except for DFHP (5.16), BAS3 (5.9), MHS4 (6.41), BAS5 (6.3), and TS6 (6.44) sites which were lower than the WHO permissible range of 6.5–8.5. The extreme pH of groundwater sources was generally not acceptable, as lower pH cause problems to the survival of aquatic life because the environment is more acidic and corrosion has occurred so the concentration of heavy metals increases pH values were more acidic.
EC: According to WHO, the maximum allowable level of conductivity is 1000 𝜇S/cm 10. The surface water sources, results show that the measured conductivity of all water samples ranges from 160.2 to 167.9 𝜇S/cm with a mean of 165.4 𝜇S/cm (Table 1). The lowest (160.2 𝜇S/cm) and highest (167.9 𝜇S/cm) conductivity values correspond to the sampling site of WTR1 and WTI respectively. The value of EC in this study much lower than research conducted in Axum university samples collected from river water was 985 𝜇S/cm 9.
This can be explained as the treatment technique is used to remove dissolved solids, turbidity, colloidal matters, and others, and thus it gives the lowest conductivity value. Accordingly, in groundwater sources results show that the measured conductivity of water samples ranged from 83.3 to 1212 𝜇S/cm with a mean of 259.8𝜇S/cm. The lowest (83.3 𝜇S/cm) and highest conductivity (1212 𝜇S/cm) values correspond to BTS1 and MDW1 samples, respectively. The values of EC are within the guideline limit at sites both the ground and surface water sources, whereas in site main campus deep well (MDW1) was higher than the permissible limits WHO standards.
The higher value of EC is a good indicator of the presence of contaminants such as sodium, potassium, chloride, or sulfate 11. Analysis of the results shows that all the samples from surface and groundwater sources (95% of the samples) have EC values less than the 12 (Table 1 and Table 2) maximum admissible limit.
Turbidity: The standard recommended maximum turbidity limit set by WHO for drinking water is 5 Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) 8. In this study the lowest turbidity values of the samples collected from surface water sources 2.39NTU and the highest value of 5.4NTU at Ureal tap1 (UT1) and water treatment itself in the part of sedimentation tank (WT) respectively (Table 1). 14.3% of the samples have turbidity values greater than the WHO permissible limit.
Accordingly, in the groundwater sources the lowest turbidity values of 0.67NTU and highest value of 4.9NTU were found at the main campus deep well (DWM1) and at Bocho Teshier spring1 (BTS1) respectively (Table 2).
All of the samples collected from groundwater sources are in line with the guideline turbidity value of 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). Jimma town groundwater has good quality in terms of turbidity than the study conducted the samples collected from groundwater sources in Tigray which measure 27.42 NTU was observed in a sample from Mekelle 4.
Water temperature: - In this study the lowest water temperature values of the samples collected from surface water sources, 22.9°C and highest value of 25.2°C were found form in the water treatment inlet part (WTI) and at Ginjo muldie reservoir 2 (GMR2) respectively with mean of 24°C (Table 1). In the sources of groundwater, the lowest water temperature values were 21.9°C and the highest value of 29.8°C was found from sample site five in Bossa Addis spring five (BAS5) and from sampling site eight main campus deep well one (DWM1), respectively (Table 2).
Copper (Cu): samples collected from surface water sources the concentration of Cu was ranged from 0.0528 to 0.0911 mg/L with a mean of 0.067 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTO respectively.
Samples collected from groundwater sources the concentration of Cu was ranged from 0.0495 to 0.581mg/L with a mean of 0.115 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP and BAS5 respectively. In the groundwater source, the sample collected from Dill fire hand pump had a high accumulation of copper (0.581mg/L) compared to the other sample sites collected from groundwater sources were possible sources of copper pollution. Dill fire hand pump had the most acidic pH of 5.16 falling slightly below the guideline limit of 6.5-8.5, thus indicating corrosiveness.
However, some people who drink water containing above the WHO recommended level of 2 mg/L copper above above the action level over a relatively short amount of time could experience adverse health effects, including vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, and nausea. Some people who drink water containing copper above the action level over many years could suffer liver or kidney damage 10. This disease was a result of drinking water contaminated from corrosion of water pipes made of copper. In this study copper is the only metal that was not above the maximum admissible limit in all the sampling areas presumably due to the low copper-related industrial and mining activities in the sampling areas.
Zinc (Zn): The concentration of Zn samples collected from surface water sources ranged from 0.0358 to 0.1464 mg/L with a mean of 0.095 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTR1 respectively.
The concentration of Zn water samples collected from groundwater sources ranged from 0.0345 to 3.45 mg/L with a mean of 0.368 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP and TS6 respectively. 7.69% samples of zinc of groundwater were found above the maximum concentration limit of the zinc while in the case of surface water no samples were found to be above the maximum concentration limit. So, in total 5% of the sample were found to be higher than the maximum concentration limit of zinc according to WHO standard. This high concentration in the water samples could be traced to urban runoff that has been polluted by domestic wastes and dust particulate matter that comes from Dill fire high school. The sources of Zn are natural processes and human activities such as releasing of solid waste into water bodies 13.
The study conducted in Tigray, from groundwater sources a minimum of 0.045 mg/L and a maximum of 5.055mg/L zinc concentration was recorded in water samples from Adwa and Indaselassie respectively. For zinc level in drinking water, of the samples analyzed in Tigray, 94.02% comply with the New Zealand standard (1.5 mg/L) and 97.01% of the samples comply with the maximum admissible limit set by USEPA 14.
Lead: The concentration of Pb samples collected from surface water sources ranged from 0.0174 to 0.183mg/L with a mean of 0.083 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at WTI and WTO respectively. The concentration of Pb water samples collected from groundwater sources ranged from 0.0365 to 0.179mg/L with a mean of 0.120 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at DFHP and JIPDW3 respectively.
The study shows that the Pb concentration in all the samples was higher than the maximum concentration limit. The inputs (possible sources) of Pb into the environment are from used dry-cell batteries, sewage effluent, runoff of wastes, and atmospheric deposition. The concentration of Pb in this study higher than in Lisikili river water in Zambezi was 0.151 mg/L result reported by 12. In the present study, the amount of Pb in drinking water higher than AKU was 0.007 mg/L 9.
In this study, the concentration of lead concentration in the groundwater sources less than the study conducted in Tigray the maximum level of Pb (1.347 mg/L) found in drinking water sampled from Indasilase. Jimma town water supply system had a high concentration of lead than the study conducted in Tigray in different areas with a minimum of BDL in drinking water samples from Alamata, Korem, Adigudom, Hagereselam, Zalambessa, Firewoini, Axum, Adwa, and Enticho. More than 70.15% of the samples were conducted by Mebrahtu & Zerabruk, 4, which was above the maximum allowable WHO standards level, that is, 0.01 mg/L for drinking purposes.
In this study in lead concentration levels all of the samples collected from the ground and surface water sources above the recommended level of WHO indicate discharge pollutants such as human and animal excreta, agricultural run-off containing phosphatic fertilizers, effluent discharges from nearby household sewages, and mechanic workshops especially battery chargers.
Cadmium: The minimum concentrations of Cd were found to be 0.0029mg/L while the maximum is 0.0219 mg/l with a mean of 0.010 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at UT1 and WTR1 respectively.
In the groundwater sample, the concentration of Cd the sample collected from groundwater sources ranged from 0.0042 to 0.031mg/L with a mean of 0.016 mg/L with the highest and lowest values at BATS1 and BAS5 respectively. In this study the concentration of cadmium was the highest in the sampling area at Bocho Abajifar teshaier spring 1 BATS1) in groundwater sample there is a road and run of water around this land use so the sources of cadmium might be agricultural practice such as fertilization, use of fungicides, domestic wastes, and fossil fuels.
In the study of Tigray, the samples collected from groundwater cadmium is detected in water only from Mekelle area, where Cd value is above the WHO 12 recommended value (0.003mg/L) was 7.46% of the samples analyzed with a mean concentration of 0.017 mg/L but, in this study, 95% of the samples were above MDL. In Mekele in the sources of groundwater, the concentration of cadmium varies from 0.014 to 0.021 mg/L 4. This indicated that Mekele water quality in the case of cadmium is better than this study conducted in Jimma town.
Iron (Fe): In the presence of Iron with the minimum concentration detected was 0.03mg/L at Kito deep well 2 (KDW2) in groundwater while in surface water it was 0.05mg/L at the water treatment outlet (WTO). The maximum concentration detected was 0.95mg/L at Dill firie hand pump (DFHP) in groundwater and surface water it was 0.95mg/L at water treatment in the inlet part (WTI). The mean concentration of iron in the samples collected from surface and groundwater sources were 0.258mg/L and 0.22mg/L respectively. The concentration of iron in the water treatment outlet part lower than the intake part because of oxidization in the stage of aeration.
Three Samples shown results higher than the maximum concentration limit of Iron, in which one sample is from surface water and two from the groundwater. 15.4% samples of groundwater and 14.3% Samples of surface water were having a concentration higher than the maximum concentration limit of Fe. In this study, the concentration of iron samples collected from river water lower because of the possible source minimum than the research conducted in Zambezi results showed wide concentrations of the heavy metals with iron recording the highest level of 2.375 mg/l 15.
In the areas studied, iron content varies from 0.097 mg/L in a sample taken from Mekelle to 1.872 mg/L from Zalambessa. About 62.69% of the samples comply with the desired concentration of iron in drinking water (0.300mg/L) set by WHO 10, whereas 37.31% of the samples have shown iron concentration above the limit.
Manganese: The minimum concentration detected was 0 mg/L (TS6), and (BTS1)) in groundwater while in surface water it was 0.01ppm. (GMR2). The maximum concentration detected was 0.38 mg/L Mentina shallow well 3(MSW3) in groundwater and surface water it was 0.55mg/L in the sample site of water treatment in the intake part (WTI). In surface water sources the concentration of heavy metals because of aeration process.
The sample collected from the inlet part of the treatment plant was higher than the maximum concentration limit of Manganese, in which this sample was collected from surface water and no samples above the maximum concentration limit those collected from the groundwater. The other results of the samples collected from Lisikili river water in Zambizi showed that Mn recorded a mean concentration of 1.230 mg/l 15.
In this study, the samples collected from groundwater sources were comparable with the research conducted in Tigray Manganese level varies from below detection in samples from Alamata, Korem, Maichew, Adigudom, Hagereselam, Zalambessa, Edagahamus, Wukro, and Enticho to 0.215 mg/L from Firewoini. WHOs’ 12 MAL for manganese is 0.500 mg/L and none of the drinking water samples analyzed show above the limit similar to this study conducted in groundwater sources.
The current study was conducted to assess the status of drinking water quality in Jimma town and its surrounding areas of Jimma town with special emphasis on trace heavy metals. All heavy metal samples were found in the range of Pb (0.0174-0.183 mg/L), Cd (0.0029-0.031 mg/L), Cu (0.0495 -0.581 mg/L), Fe (0.03 - 0.95 mg/L), Mn (0.00-0.55 mg/L), and Zn (0.0345-3.45 mg/L).
According to the finding of this study, lead and cadmium are present relatively with higher concentrations as compared to their permissible limits set by WHO, USEPA, and EU while zinc, iron, manganese, and copper were in the permissible range.
5.2. RecommendationHigh concentration of heavy metals compared to their permissible limits set by WHO, USEPA, and EU indicates it should need a treatment used for drinking purposes. The water supply and sewerage office should set up periodical monitoring of the water quality which is thus required to assess the condition of a water body and immediate steps should be taken to check the anthropogenic activity around the water sources. This study, recommends the government and other responsible authorities introduce relevant drinking water treatment techniques which can reduce the current levels of heavy metals,
APHA: American Public Health Association, EC: Electrical conductivity, EPA: Environmental protection authority, EU: European Union, FAAS: Flame Atomic Absorption spectrometer, LOD: Limit of Detection, LOQ: Limit of quantification, NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit, SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science, USA United States of America, USEPA: the United States Environmental Protection Authority, USGS: the United States of geological survey, and WHO: World Health Organization.
We would like to express our thanks to Jimma's water supply and sewerage office for permitting us to collect samples and gave detailed information on the overall background information.
This study did not receive specific funding.
Availability of data and materials Data will be available upon request from the corresponding authors.
Abraham Teym: Conceived and developed the study. Designed the checklist, collected the data analysis, interpretation editing preparing, and writing the manuscript. Dr.Embialle Mengsite, Dr.Seid Tiku, Samuel Fekadu, Mahmud Ahmednur, Gete Berihun, and Ayenew Negesse were involved in preparing the research proposal, data analysis, and research report, and revision of the manuscript.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the ethical review board institution of Health Science from Jimma University. The authorization letter was written from Jimma water supply and sewerage enterprise office.
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Published with license by Science and Education Publishing, Copyright © 2021 Abraham Teym, Embialle Mengistie, Seid Tiku, Samueal Fekadu, Gete Berihun, Mahmud Ahmednur and Ayenew Negesse
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
| [1] | Lawson, E. O. (2011). Physico-Chemical Parameters and Heavy Metal Contents of Water from the Mangrove Swamps of Lagos Lagoon, Lagos, Nigeria. Advances in Biological Research 5, 8-21. | ||
| In article | View Article | ||
| [2] | Sihabudeen, M., Ali, A, & Hussain, A. Z. (2015). Studies on heavy metal pollution of ground water in and around Trichy town, Tamilnadu, India, 6(8), 155–160. | ||
| In article | |||
| [3] | Khan, S. A., Din, Z. U., & Zubair, A. (2011). Levels of selected heavy metals in drinking water of Peshawar city, 2(3), 648-652. | ||
| In article | |||
| [4] | Mebrahtu, G., & Zerabruk, S. (2011). The Concentration of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water from Urban Areas of the Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia. | ||
| In article | View Article | ||
| [5] | Mahamud, & Urbeal. (2015). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 22. | ||
| In article | |||
| [6] | Manikandan, P., Palanisamy, P. N., Baskar, R., Sivakumar, P., & Sakthisharmila, P. (2015). Physicochemical analysis of textile industrial effluents from Tirupur city, in, India, 8354(4), 0-3. | ||
| In article | |||
| [7] | Kumar, A., & Bisht, B. (2010). Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Study of Water from Rivers of Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Study of Water from Rivers of Uttarakhand. Human Ecology, 32(3), 169-173. | ||
| In article | View Article | ||
| [8] | Tiruneh, A. T., Fadiran, A. O., & Mtshali, J. S. (2014). Evaluation of the risk of heavy metals in sewage sludge intended for agricultural application in Swaziland, 5(1), 197-216. | ||
| In article | |||
| [9] | Ododo, M. M. (2019). Physical-chemicals and Heavy Metals Analysis of Drinking Water of Aksum University, Tigray region, Ethiopia, 7(1), 1-6. | ||
| In article | |||
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